Ancient Roman Food: What Did the Romans Eat?

The echoes of ancient Rome resonate not only in its colossal architecture and intricate political systems but also in the very foundations of Western gastronomy. The ancient Roman foodscape was a vibrant tapestry woven from agricultural staples, elaborate imperial imports, and a social hierarchy that dictated much of what did Romans eat. Far from the simplistic image often conjured, Roman cuisine was diverse, evolving significantly over centuries, from the austere habits of the early Republic to the legendary excesses of the Empire. Understanding their culinary practices offers a unique window into their daily lives, social structures, and cultural values.

Daily Meals in Ancient Rome

A typical day for the ancient Romans involved three main meals, though their structure and timing differed from our modern conventions. These ancient Rome meals were dictated largely by social class and the demands of daily life.

Ientaculum (Breakfast): Eaten at dawn, the ientaculum was typically a light, modest affair. For most Romans, it consisted of bread, often dipped in wine or water¹⁰. The wealthier segments of Roman society might enjoy additions like cheese, olives, honey, dried fruit, or even eggs and milk¹⁷. For those rushing, a stop at a street vendor for a loaf of bread was common¹¹.
Prandium (Lunch): Around midday or early afternoon, Romans would partake in a small, quick lunch known as prandium¹¹. This meal often comprised leftovers from the previous day’s dinner, cold meats, cheese, fruits, and more bread¹¹. It was designed not to interrupt or slow down daily activities¹.
Cena (Dinner): The cena was the main meal of the day and varied dramatically based on wealth¹¹. For the plebeians and common folk, it was generally a simple but substantial meal of porridge (like puls), bean stew, vegetables, and occasionally a small amount of meat or fish¹¹. The elite, however, transformed the cena into a lavish and extended event, focusing on multiple courses and a wide variety of meats, fish, and seafood¹³. Towards the end of the Republic, the cena evolved to include an appetizer (gustatio), a main course (primae mensae), and dessert (secundae mensae)⁷.

Common Ingredients of Roman Cuisine

The foundation of the Roman diet was primarily agrarian, centered around what is now known as the “Mediterranean Triad”: grains, olive oil, and wine²⁷.

Grains and Bread: Cereals were the cornerstone for all social classes¹¹. Emmer, spelt, and later wheat, were made into bread, which was a daily staple⁷. The quality of bread varied significantly, with fine white bread reserved for the wealthy and coarser, darker loaves for the poor⁷. Puls, a basic porridge made from wheat or barley, was a common food, especially for the lower classes and Roman soldiers¹⁸.
Vegetables and Legumes: Vegetables were crucial, with common options including cabbage, leeks, onions, turnips, celery, garlic, asparagus, radishes, and lettuce¹⁷. Legumes such as lentils, chickpeas, and fava beans provided essential protein, particularly for those who couldn’t afford meat¹⁷.
Fruits and Nuts: Fruits were consumed fresh when in season, and dried or preserved for winter⁷. Popular varieties included apples, pears, figs, grapes, quinces, dates, and pomegranates⁷. Nuts like almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, and chestnuts were also common⁹.
Meat, Fish, and Dairy: Butcher’s meat was generally an uncommon luxury for the masses, often consumed during sacrifices or by the wealthy⁷. Pork, particularly sausages, was among the most popular meats when available⁷. Beef was less common, with cows valued for milk and bulls for labor⁷. Fish and seafood were more prevalent, especially in coastal regions or for those who could afford it, with oysters being very popular¹³. Dairy primarily meant cheese, made from the milk of goats or sheep, as it was easier to store and trade⁹.
Condiments and Spices: Roman cuisine was characterized by numerous flavorings. Salt was fundamental, not just for taste but for preservation¹⁸. The most iconic Roman condiment was garum, a fermented fish sauce used widely across social classes, much like a modern soy sauce¹³. Indigenous herbs like cumin, coriander, and mint were used, alongside imported spices such as pepper, saffron, and cinnamon²⁹. Honey was the primary sweetener²⁶.

Cooking Methods and Kitchen Tools

Roman cooking relied on practical methods and a range of tools, many of which still find equivalents in modern kitchens. Cooking was often done over an open fire in a raised hearth (focus) or using built-in ovens⁶.

Methods: Boiling, roasting, and frying were common. Large pots and cauldrons were suspended over fires using tripods or chains²⁹. Rectangular iron trays and grills (creticula) were used for roasting or grilling²⁹. Bread was typically baked in communal or household ovens⁶.
Tools:
- Pots and Pans: Terracotta and bronze pots were common, with frying pans (fretale) and shallow earthenware dishes (patellae) also in use²²
- Grinding Tools: Mortaria — stout pottery bowls with rough surfaces — were used with stone or wooden pestles for grinding and pounding ingredients²⁹.
- Utensils: Knives of various sizes (iron with bone, wood, or bronze handles) were essential for food preparation²². Spoons made of bronze, silver, or bone were used, but forks, especially table forks, were not common until much later periods, with Romans mostly eating with their hands or a spoon³¹²²²³. Ladles, dippers, strainers, and sieves were also part of the Roman kitchen²⁹.

Food for the Rich vs. Food for the Poor

The disparity in what did Romans eat was an overt reflection of the vast social stratification within Roman society¹⁷¹³¹⁸.

The Poor (Plebeians & Slaves): Their Roman diet was simple and monotonous. Their staple was puls, a porridge made from wheat or barley, often complemented by readily available vegetables like lentils, onions, and cabbage¹³²⁵²⁶. Bread was dark and coarse⁷¹⁸²⁵. Meat was a rare luxury, largely consumed only if individuals lived in the countryside and could hunt or fish¹¹¹³²⁶. The government provided a “grain dole” (frumentatio) to citizens to prevent starvation and maintain stability⁷¹⁰¹³¹⁸. Many poor Romans, without personal kitchens, would take their foodstuffs to public bakeries to be cooked²⁰²⁶.
The Rich (Patricians & Elite): The wealthy reveled in culinary extravagance. Their meals consisted of fine white bread and a much broader array of ingredients⁷¹⁸²⁵. They consumed various meats, including pork, lamb, and poultry, and also indulged in exotic game and seafood⁷¹⁸³¹. Sumptuous dining was a way to display wealth and status. Highly prized and sometimes bizarre delicacies included dormice, flamingos’ tongues, peacock, and even ostriches¹³¹⁸³¹. These elite meals were as much about showcasing opulence as they were about sustenance¹⁸.

Roman Feasts and Banquets

The Roman banquet, or convivium, was a central pillar of elite social life, serving as an elaborate display of wealth, power, and cultural sophistication¹⁴¹⁵²⁴.

Setting: Banquets were typically held in a designated dining room called a triclinium¹⁴¹⁵²⁴. This room featured three couches (lectus) arranged in a U-shape around a low central table¹⁵²⁴. Guests reclined on these couches, leaning on their left arm, eating with their right hand¹⁵¹³¹⁵. This reclining posture was a symbol of leisure and social privilege¹⁵.
Courses: A Roman banquet often unfolded in three main parts:
- Gustatio (Appetizers): Light dishes like eggs, olives, salads, and mushrooms, often served with mulsum (wine mixed with honey)¹⁵²⁴.
- Prima Mensa (Main Course): The centerpiece, featuring a vast array of meats (including exotic ones), fish, and poultry¹⁵²⁴. This course was where the host’s extravagance shone brightest¹⁵.
- Secunda Mensa (Dessert): Sweets, fruits, and nuts, generally accompanied by more wine¹⁵
Entertainment: Beyond food, banquets were spectacles. Entertainment could range from musicians, poets, and dancers to acrobats, and in the most extravagant cases, even gladiatorial combat¹⁵. Conversation on politics, philosophy, and poetry was also a vital part of the evening⁴. The entire affair was designed to impress and network, solidifying social and political alliances⁵.

Influence on Modern Cuisine

While Roman cuisine might seem like a distant historical curiosity, its influence subtly permeated Western culinary traditions, particularly within the Mediterranean region.

Many core ingredients of the modern Mediterranean diet—wheat, olive oil, wine, legumes, and various vegetables—were staples in ancient Rome and continue to be fundamental to Italian cooking today ^27³².Romans were pioneers in gastronomy, introducing diverse ingredients and cooking techniques from across their vast empire^³².Efforts to make the most of humble ingredients, known as cucina povera (peasant cooking), laid the groundwork for hearty Italian fare^³².

However, it’s crucial to address common misconceptions:

Pizza: While ancient Romans did consume flatbreads topped with olive oil, herbs, and sometimes cheese (panis focacius), it was not pizza as we know it today^8³⁰.Tomatoes, a quintessential ingredient of modern pizza, were unknown in Europe before the discovery of the Americas^{^30³³.}
Pasta: Similarly, modern pasta, especially spaghetti, did not exist in ancient Rome^14¹⁶.The Romans had a precursor called lagana, made from wheat flour and water, resembling modern lasagna noodles, often used in layered dishes^¹⁶.However, the concept of drying pasta for long-term storage and the intricate shapes associated with Italian pasta developed much later, often attributed to Arab influences in medieval Italy^{^14¹⁶.}

Cultural and Religious Food Customs

Food in ancient Rome was far more than mere sustenance; it was deeply intertwined with culture, religion, and politics.

Social Status and Identity: From the quality of bread consumed to the extravagance of a banquet, food graphically illustrated social standing^17¹⁵.Public feasts, often sponsored by emperors or wealthy individuals, were a means of gaining popularity and demonstrating generosity to the masses^¹³.
Religious Significance: Banquets and offerings of food were integral to Roman religious practices⁹. Food was also central to rites and rituals, symbolizing connections to the gods and community.
Trade and Expansion: The Roman Empire’s vast expansion exposed Romans to an array of new foods, culinary techniques, and spices from across its territories^7²⁴.Maintaining the food supply to the city of Rome, a burgeoning metropolis, became a major political concern throughout the late Republic and Empire^{^9¹³.} Trade networks ensured a steady influx of exotic ingredients, further enriching Roman cuisine for those who could afford them.
Food Preservation: Given the lack of refrigeration, Romans developed impressive food preservation techniques. These included salting meat, fish, and cheese, smoking meats (leading to ham and bacon), pickling vegetables and fish in brine or vinegar, drying fruits, and preserving fruits and even cooked meats in honey^{9^19²¹.} Grains were stored in large silos21. Wealthier Romans even used cool cellars, sometimes augmented with ice and snow brought from mountains, to store food^{^²¹.}

Conclusion

The study of ancient Roman food reveals a society deeply connected to its agricultural roots yet constantly evolving through conquest, trade, and innovation. From the humble porridge of the common citizen to the multi-course spectacles of the elite, what did Romans eat was a complex reflection of their lives. While many aspects of Roman cuisine might seem alien today—like the pervasive garum or the absence of tomatoes and true pasta—their emphasis on grains, olive oil, wine, and a diverse array of fresh produce laid an enduring groundwork. The Roman diet shaped not just the culinary traditions of Italy but left an indelible mark on the broader European palate, a testament to the fact that even millennia later, the Roman legacy continues to feed our fascination and our tables.

FAQ Section

Q1: What was a typical Roman breakfast? A typical Roman breakfast, or ientaculum, was a simple and modest meal eaten at dawn. It usually consisted of bread, often dipped in wine or water, sometimes supplemented with cheese, olives, dried fruit, honey, or, for the wealthier, eggs and milk.^17¹⁰

Q2: Did ancient Romans eat pizza or pasta? No, ancient Romans did not eat pizza or pasta as we know them today.^14¹⁶³³ While they had flatbreads (a precursor to pizza) topped with olive oil and cheese, tomatoes (a key ingredient in modern pizza) were unknown to them.^8³⁰ They also had lagana, a flat sheet of dough similar to lasagna noodles, but not the wide variety of dried pasta shapes.¹⁶ The pasta we recognize today developed much later, with influences from the Middle East.^14¹⁶

Q3: How did Romans store food? Romans employed various ingenious methods to store food without refrigeration. They used salting for meats, fish, and cheese; smoking for meats like ham and bacon; pickling vegetables and fish in brine or vinegar; drying fruits and vegetables; and preserving fruits and cooked meats in honey or lard¹⁹. Grains were stored in silos, and wealthy individuals used naturally cool cellars to extend the shelf life of perishables²¹.

Q4: What was “garum” and how was it used? Garum was a ubiquitous fermented fish sauce, much like a potent version of modern soy sauce, that was a cornerstone of Roman cuisine^18²⁰. It was made from fermented fish entrails and salt²⁸. Romans used it as a versatile condiment to add a salty, savory, and umami flavor to almost all their dishes, from main courses to even some desserts^13²⁰.

Q5: How many meals did Romans typically eat a day? Romans typically ate three meals a day: ientaculum (breakfast), prandium (lunch), and cena (dinner)^13¹⁸. While breakfast and lunch were light and often quick, the cena was the main meal, especially for the wealthy, who transformed it into an elaborate evening banquet¹¹.

Grounding sources

Daily Meals in Ancient Rome

Common Ingredients of Roman Cuisine

Cooking Methods and Kitchen Tools

Food for the Rich vs. Food for the Poor

Roman Feasts and Banquets

Influence on Modern Cuisine

Cultural and Religious Food Customs

Conclusion

FAQ Section

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